Figurative Language and Autism

Understanding Figurative Language and Autism in the Classroom

The traditional narrative around autism and figurative language has long focused on perceived deficits. However, recent scholarship, particularly Damian Milton’s double empathy theory, suggests we need a paradigm shift in how we conceptualise these challenges. What if the difficulty lies not solely with autistic individuals, but in the meeting of two different ways of processing language? While most people effortlessly understand phrases like “it’s raining cats and dogs” or “she has a heart of gold,” many autistic individuals find such expressions challenging to interpret.

The Double Empathy Perspective and Autistic Communication

Before we go into the research further I felt it was important to link the discussion of figurative language to Milton’s groundbreaking work on double empathy. This theory problematises the conventional wisdom that autistic people lack empathy or understanding. Instead, he proposes that communicative challenges arise from a mutual difficulty in understanding between autistic and non-autistic individuals. This bidirectional challenge is particularly evident in the realm of figurative language.

Understanding the Communicative Disconnect

When a neurotypical teacher says, “You’re on fire today!” to praise good work, they’re drawing on shared cultural understanding that most neurotypical students instantly grasp. However, for many autistic students, this creates an unnecessary layer of cognitive processing: first decoding the literal meaning, then searching for contextual cues to determine the intended meaning, and finally mapping this onto appropriate social responses.

Neurological Research Links to Language & Autism

Recent research illuminates three key areas affecting figurative language processing:

Pattern Recognition vs. Social Context

Autistic individuals often show a strong ability in pattern recognition, excelling at identifying and interpreting consistent, logical structures in their environment. However, figurative language—such as idioms, metaphors, and sarcasm—often defies these predictable patterns by using words in ways that don’t directly match their literal meanings. This can create challenges, as understanding figurative language requires both grasping these abstract, variable language cues and interpreting the social or emotional context behind them. Reconciling these demands can be particularly complex, as it involves blending logical pattern recognition with social and emotional nuances that are less predictable.

Processing Speed and Cognitive Load

Real-time social interactions demand fast processing of information—nonverbal cues, spoken words, tone, context—all of which the brain must interpret quickly to respond appropriately. When figurative language is used, it adds an additional layer of complexity. The brain has to not only grasp the literal meaning of the words but also decipher any abstract or metaphorical intent.

This combination of high-speed processing and the added challenge of figurative language can significantly increase cognitive load. For individuals who may already struggle with processing speed or interpreting social cues (e.g., those with social anxiety, autism spectrum conditions, or even non-native speakers), the situation becomes even more demanding, potentially resulting in social fatigue, misunderstandings, or even withdrawal from social interaction.

Context Integration

Interpreting figurative language effectively hinges on the brain’s ability to swiftly integrate diverse contextual cues—such as the speaker’s tone, body language, previous statements, and the immediate social environment. This rapid synthesis helps determine whether a statement is meant to be literal, humorous, sarcastic, or metaphorical.

In autistic cognition, however, the process of integrating these cues may follow a different structure. Autistic individuals might interpret language more literally or focus on details over general context, which can make figurative language more challenging to interpret. Research suggests that autistic cognition may prioritize certain types of information differently or process context more sequentially rather than in a simultaneous, holistic way. This can sometimes lead to misunderstandings, particularly in socially nuanced or fast-paced interactions where context shifts quickly.

Practical Strategies for Supporting Figurative Language Understanding in the Classroom

Immediate Implementation

Create a Figurative Language Lexicon

• Develop a class dictionary of commonly used expressions
• Include literal meanings, figurative meanings, and usage examples
• Make this a living document that students can contribute to especially as language evolves through the use of social media and TikTok

Use Visual Supports

• Create visual representations of metaphors
• Use comic strips to illustrate idioms
• Employ graphic organisers for comparing literal and figurative meanings

Implement the ‘Translation Pause’

• After using figurative language, pause
• Offer a literal translation
• Invite students to suggest alternative expressions

Long-term Strategies

Build Metalinguistic Awareness

• Help students recognise when language is being used figuratively
• Develop strategies for asking for clarification
• Create safe spaces for discussing language confusion

Develop Two-Way Understanding

• Encourage neurotypical students to understand autistic communication preferences
• Celebrate diversity in communication styles
• Create opportunities for mutual learning

Executive Dysfunction & Figurative Language in Autistic Individuals

One of the most useful areas of study for teachers focuses on how executive dysfunction might influence the processing of figurative language. The executive dysfunction hypothesis offers a compelling framework for understanding these difficulties.

Understanding Executive Functions

Executive functions (EFs) operate like a sophisticated control center in our brains, managing everything from planning and organization to cognitive flexibility and emotional regulation. These higher-order thinking skills allow us to navigate complex social situations, adjust our behavior based on context, and process abstract concepts. For autistic individuals, challenges with these functions can create ripple effects throughout their daily lives, particularly in communication and social interaction.

The Executive Dysfunction Hypothesis

The executive dysfunction hypothesis suggests that difficulties with figurative language processing in autism stem from underlying challenges with executive functions. When someone encounters figurative language, their brain must simultaneously hold multiple meanings, inhibit literal interpretations, and flexibly switch between possible interpretations – all tasks that rely heavily on executive functioning.

Impact on Semantic Integration

Perhaps most significantly, executive dysfunction can affect semantic integration, the brain’s ability to combine and process different pieces of information to create meaning. When processing figurative language, semantic integration allows us to:

• Connect literal meanings with figurative intentions
• Evaluate context for appropriate interpretation
• Draw upon stored knowledge and experiences
• Filter out irrelevant interpretations
• Generate new meaningful connections

Research Findings and Limitations

Current research reveals interesting correlations between executive function abilities and metaphor comprehension in neurotypical individuals. Working memory and inhibition, in particular, emerge as crucial predictors of how well someone can understand figurative language. However, when it comes to autism specifically, the research landscape shows significant gaps.

While the executive dysfunction hypothesis provides a promising framework, definitive evidence linking EFs directly to figurative language processing in autism remains elusive. Most studies examining figurative language in autism haven’t included comprehensive EF assessments, creating a significant knowledge gap. This limitation highlights the need for more integrated research approaches that consider multiple factors, including:

• Executive function measures
• Theory of Mind assessments
• Language skill evaluations
• Contextual processing abilities
• Social cognition measures

Practical Implications

Understanding the relationship between executive dysfunction and figurative language processing holds significant practical implications. This knowledge could inform:

• Educational Strategies – Educators might develop techniques that explicitly support executive function skills alongside language instruction, potentially improving students’ ability to understand figurative language.
• Therapeutic Interventions – Speech and language therapists could design interventions that target both executive functions and language processing simultaneously, potentially achieving better outcomes than addressing either aspect in isolation.
• Social Skills Training – Programs could incorporate exercises that strengthen executive functions while teaching the interpretation of figurative language in social contexts.

While the executive dysfunction hypothesis offers valuable insights into the challenges autistic individuals face with figurative language, much remains to be discovered. As research continues to evolve, a deeper understanding of this relationship could lead to more effective support strategies and interventions. This knowledge isn’t just academically interesting – it has the potential to significantly improve communication skills and quality of life for autistic individuals.

The Double Empathy Solution

Following Milton’s insights, successful teaching of figurative language requires:

Mutual Adaptation

• Teachers adapting their communication style
• Students developing their understanding
• Creating a shared communicative space

Environmental Considerations

• Reducing sensory distractions during language instruction
• Providing written supports alongside verbal instruction
• Allowing processing time

Cultural Recognition

• Acknowledging autistic communication as a valid form of expression
• Understanding that figurative language is culturally specific
• Recognising that clarity in communication benefits all students

Functional Communication

• Focus on successful communication rather than perfect interpretation
• Value alternative expressions
• Celebrate creative solutions

Table: Figurative Language and Meanings

Phrase	Meaning
A blessing in disguise	A good thing that seemed bad at first
A dime a dozen	Very common, cheap, or easy to get
Beat around the bush	Avoid saying something directly
Bite the bullet	Face a painful situation with courage
Break the ice	Start a conversation or interaction in a social setting
Burn bridges	End a relationship in a way that makes it difficult to go back
Call it a day	Stop working on something
Cut corners	Do something in the easiest, fastest, or cheapest way
Hit the nail on the head	Get something exactly right
Let the cat out of the bag	Reveal a secret
Once in a blue moon	Very rarely
Piece of cake	Something very easy
Spill the beans	Reveal secret information
Under the weather	Feeling sick
Up in the air	Uncertain or undecided
Back to square one	Start over from the beginning
Ball is in your court	It’s your decision or responsibility
Barking up the wrong tree	Pursuing a misguided course of action
Bite off more than you can chew	Take on more than you can handle
Burning the midnight oil	Working late into the night
Caught between a rock and a hard place	Facing a difficult choice
Cost an arm and a leg	Very expensive
Cry over spilled milk	Complain about a past event that can’t be changed
Cut to the chase	Get to the point quickly
Devil’s advocate	Argue the opposite side to challenge or explore ideas
Don’t put all your eggs in one basket	Don’t risk everything on one outcome
Every cloud has a silver lining	There’s something positive in every difficult situation
Give the benefit of the doubt	Trust someone despite doubts
Go the extra mile	Make extra effort
Hit the sack	Go to bed
Jump on the bandwagon	Follow a popular trend
Kill two birds with one stone	Accomplish two things at once
Leave no stone unturned	Do everything possible to find a solution
Make a mountain out of a molehill	Exaggerate a minor issue
Miss the boat	Miss an opportunity
On the ball	Alert and knowledgeable
Play it by ear	Act spontaneously without a plan
Pull someone’s leg	Play a joke or trick
Put yourself in someone else’s shoes	Empathize with someone’s situation
Rain on someone’s parade	Spoil someone’s enjoyment or success
Raining cats and dogs	Raining heavily
See eye to eye	Agree completely
Sit on the fence	Remain neutral, avoid making a decision
Skeletons in the closet	Secrets that could cause embarrassment if revealed
Steal someone’s thunder	Take credit for someone else’s idea
Take with a grain of salt	Be skeptical about something
The ballpark figure	An approximate number
Throw in the towel	Give up
Turn a blind eye	Ignore something wrong intentionally
Walk on eggshells	Be cautious to avoid upsetting someone
Water under the bridge	Something in the past that no longer affects the present
When pigs fly	An event that will never happen
You can’t judge a book by its cover	Appearances can be deceptive
Add fuel to the fire	Make a bad situation worse
Bite the hand that feeds you	Hurt someone who’s been helping you
Burn the candle at both ends	Exhaust yourself by doing too much
Caught red-handed	Caught in the act of doing something wrong
Elephant in the room	An obvious problem that’s ignored
Fit as a fiddle	In very good health
Hit the ground running	Start something with enthusiasm and success
In a nutshell	Summarize briefly
In hot water	In trouble
Keep an eye on	Watch closely
Let sleeping dogs lie	Avoid stirring up trouble
Make a long story short	Summarize or skip unnecessary details
Mind your Ps and Qs	Be careful with your manners or behavior
Off the hook	Released from responsibility
Out of the blue	Completely unexpected
Pull the wool over someone’s eyes	Deceive someone
Read between the lines	Look beyond the surface for a hidden meaning
Rock the boat	Disrupt or cause trouble
Running on fumes	Continuing despite exhaustion
Seeing is believing	Believing only what you’ve personally witnessed
Shoot from the hip	Speak or act without thinking
Take a back seat	Become less important or involved
Take it with a grain of salt	View with skepticism
The straw that broke the camel’s back	The final small problem that triggers an overreaction
Throw caution to the wind	Act without worry or hesitation
Under your nose	Right in front of you
Up to par	Satisfactory or acceptable level
Use your head	Think carefully
Water off a duck’s back	Criticism that doesn’t affect someone
Wear your heart on your sleeve	Show your emotions openly
A penny for your thoughts	Asking someone what they are thinking
Actions speak louder than words	What you do is more important than what you say
As right as rain	Perfectly fine
Asking for trouble	Taking unnecessary risks
Blow off steam	Release pent-up energy or emotions
Burning the candle at both ends	Exhausting oneself
Cold feet	Nervousness before a big event
Cut and dried	Simple and clear
Driving me up the wall	Annoying or irritating someone
Face the music	Accept the consequences
Fall on deaf ears	Ignored by others
Get your act together	Organize yourself
Go out on a limb	Take a risk
Jump the gun	Act too soon
Leave a sour taste in someone’s mouth	Give a lasting bad impression
Nip it in the bud	Stop something before it becomes bigger
On thin ice	In a risky or precarious situation
Out of your depth	In a situation too difficult for you to handle
Take a rain check	Postpone a plan
Throw someone under the bus	Betray someone for self-benefit
Your guess is as good as mine	I don’t know either
Zip your lip	Be quiet

Neurodiversity Affirming Approaches to School’s Communication Environments

The path to successful figurative language instruction lies not in “fixing” autistic students’ understanding but in creating a more inclusive linguistic environment. By acknowledging the double empathy problem and implementing strategies that address both sides of the communication equation, we can create classrooms where all students can thrive.

Understanding how executive dysfunction affects figurative language processing in autism can provide valuable insights that could shape future therapeutic approaches and educational strategies. As we gain more knowledge in this area, we move closer to developing more effective ways to support autistic individuals.

Understanding figurative language becomes not just about learning to interpret mainstream expressions, but about developing a richer, more inclusive communication environment that acknowledges and values different ways of thinking and expressing meaning.

Glossary of Key Terms

• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by difficulties in social communication and interaction
• Figurative Language: Language that uses words or expressions with a meaning that is different from the literal interpretation. Examples include:
  • Idiom: A group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words (e.g., “kick the bucket” meaning “to die”).
  • Metaphor: A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable (e.g., “life is a rollercoaster”).
  • Irony: The expression of one’s meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect.
• Pragmatics: The branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used.
• Theory of Mind (ToM): The ability to understand other people’s mental states, such as beliefs, intentions, desires, and knowledge, and to recognize that these mental states may differ from one’s own.
• Executive Function: Higher-level cognitive processes that control and regulate other cognitive skills and behaviors, including planning, working memory, attention, problem-solving, and inhibition.
• Semantic Integration: The ability to combine the meanings of words and sentences into a coherent understanding of the overall message see also Semantic Webbing: A Guide for SEN Teachers.
• Literal Language: Language that means exactly what it says, without any figurative or metaphorical interpretation.
• Lexical Access: The process of retrieving the meaning of a word from one’s mental lexicon, which is the mental dictionary of words and their meanings.
• Developmental Trajectory: The path or pattern of development over time, often used to describe how skills or abilities emerge and change throughout childhood and adolescence.

References

All of the sources used in this article on figurative language were open access at the time of publication.

Kalandadze, T., Johan Braeken, Brynskov, C. and Kari-Anne Bottegaard Næss (2021). Metaphor Comprehension in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Core Language Skills Matter. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, [online] 52(1), pp.316–326. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-04922-z.

Kinga Morsanyi and Dušan Stamenković (2021). Idiom and proverb processing in autism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science, [online] 5(3), pp.367–387. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s41809-021-00079-4.

Lampri, S., Peristeri, E., Marinis, T., & Andreou, M. (2024). Figurative language processing in autism spectrum disorders: A review. Autism Research, 17(4), 674-689. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.3069

‌S. Chahboun, Ø. Kvello and Page, A.G. (2021). Extending the Field of Extended Language: A Literature Review on Figurative Language Processing in Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Frontiers in Communication, [online] 6. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2021.661528.

Vulchanova, M., & Vulchanov, V. (2022). Rethinking Figurative Language in Autism: What Evidence Can We Use for Interventions? Frontiers in Communication, 7, 910850. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2022.910850

‌